5 Alternate Writing Techniques in English You Havent Heard of

5 Alternate Writing Techniques in English You Havent Heard of 5 Alternate Writing Techniques in English You Havent Heard of Your educator peruses twelve of papers each time he/she allots an article. On the off chance that you need to get a high evaluation, you need to guarantee that your paper stands apart from the rest. How might you do that? In the event that you have aced the fundamental composing strategies, here are five further developed ones that you can use to separate yourself from the rest. 1. Be Original As regularly as could be expected under the circumstances, attempt to adopt a special strategy on the subject, offer a unique point of view, or utilize your words in a new and intriguing manner. As your educator filters through twelve of papers, he/she wouldn't like to see a similar point ordinarily. Adopt an innovative strategy to the task that will assist you with sticking out, and you will get a higher evaluation therefore. Contingent upon the task, you ought to likewise write in your own remarkable voice. For certain assignments, you may should be amazingly formal and scholastic. In any case, on the off chance that you have an increasingly innovative task, utilize a useful conversational tone. Compose the manner in which you would address somebody you regard and feel good with. Permit your composition to mirror your own character and your style also. Writing in such a way permits you to interface with the crowd. 2. Recount to a Story On the off chance that you have a handy, genuine tale that is identified with the subject you are expounding on, it is typically fitting to recount to quickly a story that shows your point. Not just this comes to your meaningful conclusion more clear, yet it can likewise be engaging for the peruser. Numerous essayists don't utilize this strategy, so it is one of the approaches to separate your composition. Nonetheless, ensure that your story is straightforwardly identified with your paper and isn't off point or superfluous. Additionally, arrive at the point rapidly without investing an unreasonable measure of energy in the story. A couple of sentences are typically enough to engage the peruser and to communicate your point. 3. Show, Do Not Tell This procedure particularly applies to exploratory writing, yet it tends to be utilized in different sorts of works too. At the point when you are composing, straightforward telling the peruser some data, it isn't generally compelling. It is smarter to show the peruser through subtleties, models, and proof. Portray the data you are attempting to clarify. In exploratory writing, this can incorporate utilizing the five faculties to make your composing fundamental. Depict what something looks like, smells, feels, tastes, and sounds to make a clear picture in the reader’s mind. In educational or convincing composition, such a method can mean including models and proof to help the cases. Rather than saying that Abraham Lincoln is the best United States president, show that he is the best United States president by giving proof and giving models. Rather than saying that you were anxious, talk about your sweat-soaked palms and dashing heart. This is a standout amongst other composing methods in English, and it will doubtlessly dazzle any individual who peruses your paper. 4. Utilize a Call to Action A source of inspiration is smarter to use in convincing composition. Such a method welcomes your peruser to make a type of move, and it is a brilliant thing since it draws in your crowd and includes it in perusing your paper. A source of inspiration can be whatever is pertinent to your point. For instance, on the off chance that you simply have spent a whole paper persuading perusers that each individual is liable for the wellbeing of the planet, you could close your exposition by urging your perusers to reuse or preserve water. In the event that you compose a convincing paper about a law that everybody should consider, you can incorporate a source of inspiration encouraging your perusers to call administrators or sign an appeal. The source of inspiration should welcome the peruser to act and make them associated with perusing your paper. 5. Utilization of Figurative Language You have likely known about non-literal language before-this is the language that is utilized inventively and isn't intended to be taken actually. Allegorical language incorporates likeness, representation, metaphor, sound to word imitation, and imagery. You should utilize non-literal language in exploratory writing, however it can likewise be a compelling strategy in enlightening or enticing composition. A very much positioned analogy can intrigue your peruser and come to your meaningful conclusion increasingly excellent and justifiable. Next time you are doled out to compose a paper, take a stab at utilizing these procedures. Your teacher will be doubtlessly intrigued!

The Sacrament of Baptism Essay -- Christianity

In the United States Christianity is the biggest strict gathering followed by Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism (Kohut and Rogers). As indicated by the Pew Research Council Christianity was involved more than 82 percent of the populace in America as of March 2002 (Kohut and Rogers). The majority of the world’s Christians live in the America’s and Europe (Pew Research Center). Be that as it may, the number of inhabitants in Christians that at present live in the America’s and Europe is fundamentally lower than in the mid 1900’s (Pew Research Center). Christianity is partitioned into three principle branches: Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestants. The Protestants make up the biggest part of the Christian religion in the United States and totaled fifty-two percent of the American populace in 2002 (Kohut and Rogers). Catholics arrive in a nearby second involving twenty-four percent of the American Population in March of 2002 (Kohut and Rogers). The dom inant parts of the Christian categories mainstream today created during the 500 years after the protestant transformation and are a piece of the protestant division (Pew Research Center). A significant number of the Christian divisions share a great deal of similar convictions; be that as it may, there are many themes they differ on, for example, the ceremony of sanctification. Numerous Christian sections practice the convention of submersion. Be that as it may, numerous groups contrast broadly on the importance and criticalness of the ceremony or statute of absolution. Submersion in the Old Testament is utilized as an image of a believer’s dedication to God by washing with water as an indication of sanitization and sanctification. There are various implications and strategies to sanctification that have been seen by numerous beliefs more than a large number of years. A considerable lot of the traditions and b... .... Submersion (in the Bible). New Catholic Encyclopedia. second ed. Vol. 2. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 56-60. Storm World History In Context. Web. 30 Dec. 2011. Zondervan NIV Study Bible. Zondervan New International Study Bible. Ed. Kenneth L. Barker. 2008. Fantastic Rapids: Zondervan, 2002. Seat Research Center. Worldwide Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population. 19 December 2011. December 2011 . Holy observance. World Religions. New York: Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1987. Macmillan Compendium. Storm World History In Context. Web. 16 Nov. 2011. Holy observance of Baptism. 2003. .

How to Spot a Narcissistic Sociopath

How to Spot a Narcissistic Sociopath Theories Personality Psychology Print Qualities of a Narcissistic Sociopath By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on April 09, 2019 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on December 09, 2019 More in Theories Personality Psychology Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Behavioral Psychology Cognitive Psychology Developmental Psychology Social Psychology Biological Psychology Psychosocial Psychology Most people assume that others have the same moral code as themselves. We assume that others agree it is wrong to lie, steal, and manipulate others for our own gain. It can come as a shock, then, when you eventually cross paths in your life with someone who shatters that perception. In some cases, this person may be a narcissistic sociopathâ€"a person with a unique combination of traits that causes them to leave behind a trail of destruction in their personal and professional lives. 1:24 How to Identify a Malignant Narcissist While there is no official diagnosis of narcissistic sociopath, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) recognizes two disorders that may be present to form this constellation of traits: narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) and antisocial personality disorder (APD). People who have aspects of both of these personality disorders could be considered narcissistic sociopaths. Most people assume that they would know a narcissist or sociopath if they met one, but these people are not always easy to identify. Some people may show traits of a narcissistic sociopathâ€"however, its important to note that only when the patterns of behavior are severe and interfere in his/her life and the lives of those around this person would he/she potentially be considered to have a personality disorder. Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin   Diagnosing the Narcissistic Sociopath In order to arrive at the conclusion that a person is a narcissistic sociopath, it would be necessary for them to be diagnosed with aspects of both narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder. These two personality disorders are both a part of the Cluster B group in the DSM-5. In general terms, a personality disorder refers to unhealthy and rigid patterns of thinking and behaving that impair social, work, and school functioning. Most people with personality disorders do not realize that they have a problem and blame others for the issues that they create themselves. DSM-5 Criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder Narcissistic personality disorder  is a pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, according to the DSM-5. In addition, five or more from the following list of DSM-5 criteria need to be present for an official diagnosis. Has a grandiose sense of self-importance (exaggerates achievements and abilities)Preoccupied with dreams of unlimited power, success, physical attractiveness, and loveHolds the belief that he is of special or high status and can only be understood by similar people or should only associate with those people (or institutions)Has a need for excessive admirationPossesses a sense of entitlement and expects favorable treatment or complianceExploits other people to achieve personal goalsLacks empathy regarding the needs and feelings of other peopleIs envious of other people or think other people envy himHas arrogant behaviors and attitudes People with this disorder may monopolize conversations and look down on people whom they feel are inferior to them.   They will take advantage of you to get what they want, no matter who gets hurt along the way. Individuals with NPD live with many negative outcomes of their personality disorder. Some examples of the problems that they face include the following: Trouble handling criticismEasily become impatient or angry if they dont think they are being treated correctlyFeel easily slighted and may have relationship problemsTry to belittle others or react with rage to make themselves seem superiorHave trouble regulating their behavior and emotionsTrouble adapting to change and dealing with stressCan become depressed if they fall short of what they feel is idealSecretly feel insecure, vulnerable, and humiliated and have fragile self-esteem DSM-5 Criteria for Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial personality disorder  is a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, occurring since age 15 years, according to the DSM-5. In addition, an individual must show at least three of the following: The repeated failure to follow social norms resulting in grounds for arrestEngaging in deceitfulness (lying, using aliases, not paying off debts)Impulsivity and not planning ahead; moving around constantlyIrritability and aggressiveness (resulting in physical fights/assaults)Reckless disregard or concern for the safety of other peopleChronic irresponsibility reflected by a continued failure to maintain a job, finish school or stay on top of financial commitmentsLack of remorse about hurting others (indifferent or rationalizes) The individual must be at least 18 years old and have had evidence of a conduct disorder by age 15. The Narcissistic Sociopath Now that we have a picture of narcissistic personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder, we can start to construct an understanding of what it means to be a narcissistic sociopath. In order for someone to fall into this category, they would need to be diagnosed with both features of NPD and APD. A picture starts to emerge of a person who lacks empathy as they go about their daily lives. Narcissism intensifies with qualities of APD (or sociopathy) to worsen outcomes. A sociopathic narcissist will be cold and callous but will also be seeking the admiration of others (and will believe that he deserves it). He will have a disdain for people and think its okay to exploit and dispose of others in whatever way it helps him to get ahead. While a sociopath doesnt think about other people unless they can benefit her in some way, a narcissist only thinks of others in terms of how they reflect back on her. When you put these two qualities together, a picture emerges of a person on a quest for power and control, who uses the love and admiration of others as a tool to dominate and manipulate, and who goes about all of this thinking that it is his right and that he is justified. There will be no guilt, no apologies, and no remorse coming from the narcissistic sociopath. Even if these behaviors land this person in trouble, or worse, in prisonâ€"he wont stop. After all, its all just a game and the people are pawns. When he gets tired of those people or they arent serving a useful role in his life (his game) anymore, then he will cast them aside. A narcissist without APD might have some ability to feel guilt or remorse and may be able to be helped with appropriate psychotherapy. A narcissistic sociopath, however, is unlikely to feel those emotions or be helped in a genuine way through psychotherapy. Therapy is a game to be manipulated and the therapist is a pawn. The Prototypical Narcissistic Sociopath What would a prototypical narcissistic sociopath look like? While there are variations in the severity of symptoms, we can start to assemble a picture that will help you to identify these people in real life. Most likely, youve encountered these types of people in news reports. You may see them associated with serial killings or financial scandals. The prison population is composed of a large percentage of these individuals (70 percent in prison versus .2 to 3.3 percent in the general population for APD). At the less severe end of the spectrum, you might find these individuals climbing the corporate ladder (but stepping on people to get there) or holding positions of power in local and national government, as frightening as that might be. The scariest part is that people with this disorder will be hard to spot. They may be polished, well-dressed, successful, and charming. They may take part in charitable causes or charitable activities, not because they care, but because it makes them look good. To the outside observer, it might be hard to tell the difference. In particular, people with money and privilege with these disorders may be particularly hard to spot. A narcissistic sociopathic business owner might default on debts or misrepresent what the company is selling. Some will be physically aggressive while others may be harmful on an emotional level. Regardless of the harm that they do, these people believe they are exempt from the moral code that everyone else follows, which is what makes them so dangerous and so difficult to spot. Causes While we dont know the exact causes of NPD or APD, it is believed that environment, genetics, and neurobiology play a role. These disorders are more common in males than females and begin in the teenage/early adult years. This makes it likely that some aspect of their upbringing or early environment, or even later stressors, combined with a genetic predisposition or biology, leads to a disorder. Traits Shared by Narcissists and Sociopaths What are the traits shared by narcissists and sociopaths? They may both be charismatic and charming, unreliable, controlling, selfish, and dishonest. They both have a sense of entitlement and deny responsibility for their actions. They usually lack insight into their personality disorder, lack empathy, and lack emotional responsiveness. Narcissists vs. Sociopaths What are the differences between narcissists and sociopaths? While in this article we are considering the case of a person diagnosed with a combination of these, it can also be useful to consider where they diverge rather than simply where they overlap. In general, we consider that the driving force behind the two disorders differs. In the case of the narcissist, the persons ego is always at stake, and this drives many of their behaviors. On the other hand, sociopaths are always driven by their self-interest, may be cunning, and take on whatever persona gets them ahead in the moment. Sociopaths are more like classic con artists, while narcissists are more like hurt children lashing out and faking superiority to hide inner pain. Classic sociopaths are not trying to impress you to build up their own ego; rather, they will only try to impress you if it serves a purpose in their greater plan. They are less likely to brag than narcissists. Instead, the sociopath is more likely to bestow compliments on you and center the conversation around you to get you to like them (and get you to do what they want). Sociopaths are more calculating while narcissists are more reactive. Sociopaths might even apologize or put themselves down if it serves some greater purpose in the game they are playing. Narcissists work to achieve success while exploiting others, while sociopaths will steal and exploit others, taking any risks necessary to fit their agenda. Treatment for Narcissistic Sociopaths Is there a treatment for narcissistic sociopaths? Unfortunately, the effectiveness of the treatment depends on the level of insight a person has. While talk therapy can be used for narcissistic personality disorder, a person who also is a sociopath isnt likely to benefit from therapy, as their goal will be to manipulate the therapist. However, if the person falls closer to NPD than APD, talk therapy may be of help. Narcissists generally dont seek treatment on their own unless they are experiencing extreme stress or depression, substance abuse problems, or their partner insists. People with APD (sociopaths) may be put in court-ordered therapy but arent likely to seek treatment on their own as they dont believe they have a problem. Therapy for NPD often focuses on techniques to facilitate a more resilient sense of self-esteem. However, it can be hard for them to follow through on treatment because it is common for them to perceive the whole process as insulting to their self-esteem. At the same time, people with NPD are dependent on others and are less likely to leave relationships than those with APD. They often have families and children and may be amenable to change if the right balance can be struck with the therapist. Coping How do you know youve met a narcissistic sociopath or if there is one in your life? The following list of characteristics might be helpful. Does the person: Constantly make you feel like you are the problem, not them?Punish you with criticism or silence?Seem to get you to take responsibility for their errors or insults?Make you feel special and shower you with attention but then withdraw it for no reason?Obsess about their physical appearance and need compliments? Unfortunately, narcissistic sociopaths are good at finding the right people to manipulate. They know that you are trusting. They know you will make excuses for their bad behavior because you dont want to see it for what it really is. However, if your gut is sending you signals and youre brushing off feelings of anger, distrust, and fear, there is probably a good reason. This is known as cognitive dissonance. You want to believe that this person you know is as good as they appear, even though you know it all seems too good to be true. The first step to dealing with this person is to stop reinterpreting the facts. Dont give someone with a narcissistic sociopathic personality the benefit of the doubt. Youre a good, trusting person who wants to see the good in othersâ€"thats understandable. This may make it hard for you to see clearly. You might also be in a disadvantaged social or financial position that impairs your ability to fight back. Most importantly, however, if the relationship is abusive, you must find a way to leave. If there is no abuse, you can set boundaries, build your assertiveness, and set limits, but you cant change the other person. Its not an easy decision whether to stay or go. Gain awareness and help from others and confront the situation with as much logic and rational thought as you can muster. Fighting or arguing with the narcissistic sociopath wont help and will only make things worse. A Word From Verywell If you know someone who fits the criteria for a narcissistic sociopath, it is important to recognize that its unlikely that person will change or seek help. Your best option is to arm yourself with knowledge, set strong boundaries, and distance yourself from the person as much as possible. If you find yourself in an abusive relationship with someone displaying these qualities, it is important to find a safe way to leave. Setting Healthy Boundaries

Artificial Intelligence Is An Idea That Machines Can Think...

Artificial Intelligence is an idea. An idea that machines can think and make decisions just as us humans can. With an ever growing knowledge of technology, we have seen a major impact from Artificial Intelligence and it will continue to impact our lives. One future impact of AI is its use in the judicial system. Judicial systems exist all around the world, in one form or anther, each with different laws and policies, but all judicial systems can be significantly impacted by AI. However, the question that arises is on a moral and ethical basis, should AI be used in the judicial system? This issue brings much controversy as to whether AI can effectively make correct decisions on its own based on the evidence that has been presented to them and in which ways they are able to assist employees of the judiciary system. AI actually already play a role in the judiciary process. They are used in evidence and document research to make lawyers jobs much easier. â€Å"I would suspect that AI use in data mining for e-discovery might be one of the most helpful advancements. This would include the ability to examine data for contextual relevance† (5 Questions On Artificial Intelligence). E-discovery is a very popular tool with lawyers as it is able to perform tedious tasks, making their job much more time efficient. Artificial Intelligence has also begun making serious strides in systems that can notify and update lawyer’s research when relevant changes to the law have occurred (5 Questions OnShow MoreRelatedEssay on An Overview of Artificial Intelligence1748 Words   |  7 PagesAn Overview of Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence, a concept that would make possible our most remote dreams, specially for housewives. Would not it be interesting to know what is this marvelous thing that is going to make our dreams come true? I think it is. AI(Artificial Intelligence) is a fairly new field in Computer Science, my subject, which I found very interesting. AI it is not a well defined concept yet, which it is not a surprise for me, considering that is a veryRead MoreHow Close Are We Really Artificial Intelligence?1249 Words   |  5 PagesHow Close Are We Really to Artificial Intelligence? In The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, written by Douglas Adams, a man named Arthur Dent wakes up and finds himself at the beginning of beyond a bad day. When he learns that a friend of his is actually an alien with advanced knowledge of Earth s impending destruction, he is transported off the Earth seconds before it is exploded to make way for a new hyperspace motorway. And as if that s not enough, throw in being wanted by the police, EarthRead MoreArtificial Intelligence Essay658 Words   |  3 PagesArtificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. Nowadays with the use of high level techniques, computers have been programmed to solve many difficult problems, but the products that are available today are only a sample of what is coming in the future. AI has an interesting history and has always been on the pioneering end of computer science. In order to classify machines as thinkingRead MorePersuasive Speech Outline1169 Words   |  5 PagesTitle:  What’s In Your Glass? Topic: The Opposition of Artificial Intelligence Method of organization:  Refutative Specific Purpose:   My specific purpose of this speech is to encourage those who oppose artificial intelligence to see the good that can be done with this technology. Thesis:   In this presentation I hope to explain the opposition that artificial intelligence faces, show examples of successful uses of AI, and challenge those opposed to this technology to consider a change ofRead MoreArtificial Intelligence And Human Science1309 Words   |  6 Pagesthat hug you just had was not body heat but just an electrochemical signal that told your brain to feel that way. Imagine this, for the rest of your immortal life. Technology is improving at an astonishing rate in the field of human science. Artificial hearts and wombs are successful in transplants, and more utilizable prosthetic limbs are being introduced to the world currently. In college, students are learning how to program a robot hand that can replicate basic motions of a human hand. From thereRead More The Debate Over Artificial Intelligence Essay1507 Words   |  7 PagesThe Debate Over Artificial Intelligence    Can machines think? Or rather, can we develop true artificial intelligence in the sense of machines that think and understand as we humans do? This is an interesting problem that is becoming more and more relevant in our lives as computers become more complex and integral to our lives. Two articles, John Searles Minds, Brains, and Programs and William Lycans Robots and Minds, present two different answers to this question and also raise severalRead MoreAnalysis Of Alan Turing s Can Machines Think?1587 Words   |  7 Pagesessay â€Å"Can machines think?† Alan Turing, a great mathematician, and creator of the Turing Test presents us with the initial concept of what is now considered artificial intelligence. He states that eventually, as time progresses, machines will be able to think like humans. But, can a machine really think like a human? Can a machine even think on its own, or it is just based on human science and engineering to make computer systems perform tasks that re quire intelligence when done by humans? SubstantialRead More Mary Shelleys Frankenstein and Modern Day Implications Essay1301 Words   |  6 Pagesnot merely a human being the sciences are lusting blindly to bring to life, as was the deranged quest of Victor Frankenstein, but rather to generate something potentially even more dangerous and horrifying with implications that could endanger the entire world and human population. Few things are more powerful than the human mind or human intelligence. This ability to think, learn and process complex thoughts has been the driving force that has allowed for the immense growth of human culture andRead MoreThe Dangers Of Artificial Intelligence1701 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Whoever perceives that robots and artificial intelligence are merely here to serve humanity, think again. With virtual domestic assistants and driverless cars just the latest in a growing list of applications, it is we humans who risk becoming dumbed down and ultimately subservient to machines.† ― Alex Morritt As the years have progressed, more and more people have adapted artificial intelligence systems into their home and everyday lives. A range of inventions include patient simulation systemsRead MoreMoral Status of Robots Essay1172 Words   |  5 Pagesthat humans had a few thousand years ago were not as advanced as today, they were still toying with the idea of creating machines that would have the capability to make similar rational decisions that we do. As we are entering further into the technological age, it is becoming less of a far fetch idea and more of a possibility that artificial intelligence will reach the same capacity for thought that we have. Numerous scientists and scholars have disputed over whether or not if/when artificial intelligence

Poverty and Inequality in the United States

Americans are proud of their economic system, believing it provides opportunities for all citizens to have good lives. Their faith is clouded, however, by the fact that poverty persists in many parts of the country. Government anti-poverty efforts have made some progress but have not eradicated the problem. Similarly, periods of strong economic growth, which bring more jobs and higher wages, have helped reduce poverty but have not eliminated it entirely. The federal government defines a minimum amount of income necessary for the basic maintenance of a family of four. This amount may fluctuate depending on the cost of living and the location of the family. In 1998, a family of four with an annual income below $16,530 was classified as living in poverty. The percentage of people living below the poverty level dropped from 22.4 percent in 1959 to 11.4 percent in 1978. But since then, it has fluctuated in a fairly narrow range. In 1998, it stood at 12.7 percent. What is more, the overall figures mask much more severe pockets of poverty. In 1998, more than one-quarter of all African-Americans (26.1 percent) lived in poverty; though distressingly high, that figure did represent an improvement from 1979, when 31 percent of blacks were officially classified as poor, and it was the lowest poverty rate for this group since 1959. Families headed by single mothers are particularly susceptible to poverty. Partly as a result of this phenomenon, almost one in five children (18.9 percent) was poor in 1997. The poverty rate was 36.7 percent among African-American children and 34.4 percent of Hispanic children. Some analysts have suggested that the official poverty figures overstate the real extent of poverty because they measure only cash income and exclude certain government assistance programs such as Food Stamps, health care, and public housing. Others point out, however, that these programs rarely cover all of a familys food or health care needs and that there is a shortage of public housing. Some argue that even families whose incomes are above the official poverty level sometimes go hungry, skimping on food to pay for such things as housing, medical care, and clothing. Still, others point out that people at the poverty level sometimes receive cash income from casual work and in the underground sector of the economy, which is never recorded in official statistics. In any event, it is clear that the American economic system does not apportion its rewards equally. In 1997, the wealthiest one-fifth of American families accounted for 47.2 percent of the nations income, according to the Economic Policy Institute, a Washington-based research organization. In contrast, the poorest one-fifth earned just 4.2 percent of the nations income, and the poorest 40 percent accounted for only 14 percent of income. Despite the generally prosperous American economy as a whole, concerns about inequality continued during the 1980s and 1990s. Increasing global competition threatened workers in many traditional manufacturing industries, and their wages stagnated. At the same time, the federal government edged away from tax policies that sought to favor lower-income families at the expense of wealthier ones, and it also cut spending on a number of domestic social programs intended to help the disadvantaged. Meanwhile, wealthier families reaped most of the gains from the booming stock market. In the late 1990s, there were some signs these patterns were reversing, as wage gains accelerated -- especially among poorer workers. But at the end of the decade, it was still too early to determine whether this trend would continue. --- Next Article: The Growth of Government in the United States This article is adapted from the book Outline of the U.S. Economy by Conte and Carr and has been adapted with permission from the U.S. Department of State.

The Day You Were Born Free Essays

The Day You Were Born I was forty-one weeks and one day pregnant, lying in an uncomfortable hospital bed, wearing a hideous pink gown, and counting the minutes until my next contraction. Apparently, you were very comfortable in my tummy because there was no sign of you making your appearance any time soon. I was having plenty of contractions but was not dilating; our doctor was looking for a count of at least 60 on the room monitor, but I was only in the mid-20s. We will write a custom essay sample on The Day You Were Born or any similar topic only for you Order Now Before long she ordered that Pitocin be administered to induce productive labor. It seemed to work– after only twenty minutes, my contractions went from the twenties to the eighties and continued to increase after that. A few more long hours passed. The doctor returned to our room to check on my progress. Surprisingly, after the initial dosage of Pitocin, I had only slightly progressed during the intervening hours. The doctor told me I should have advanced toward your delivery much more than I had and determined that my inability to relax my body was the reason why the process had again been slowed. I was so excited to meet you that I couldn’t help but cry, thinking that you would never show up. A wonderful nurse then came in the room and sat down to talk with us. She assured me that every woman, and every pregnancy, are different. She promised me that I would not leave the hospital without you in my arms. She introduced herself as Nurse Pam, and called herself â€Å"The Pitocin Queen. † She told your Daddy and me all about her days as an Army nurse. We became instant friends. In order to get things moving along a little more quickly, she encouraged me to undergo an epidural to help me relax. Your Daddy was very supportive, holding my hand and reassuring me. Accepting pain medication, he said, did not mean that I was a failure; it just meant that plans had changed. After forty hours of labor, I was willing to try anything to get you to come into the world. After another long hour passed, the anesthesiologist came into our room. Your Nana happened to be downstairs getting coffee, and your Daddy and Aunt Lindsay couldn’t stomach a procedure involving a large needle, so the anesthesiologist ordered everyone but your Mimi to leave. The epidural took only about ten minutes, and between the anxiety and pain from the contractions, I didn’t even feel the needle. I was ordered to lie down and relax so that the medicine could fully take effect and was urged to let the nurses or doctor know if I wasn’t completely numb within a few minutes. About forty-five minutes passed, but I was still able to feel my left leg and move it around. Nurse Pam called the anesthesiologist back in for round two, and that time it finally worked. It was so odd to be lying in bed watching television while your Nana, Aunt Lindsay, Daddy and Mimi giggled about how I couldn’t feel the contractions. We would take turns looking at the monitor and exclaiming, â€Å"Did you feel that one? It was huge! † I had completely relaxed at this point and wasn’t nearly as anxious about the passing time. I was even able to joke with your Daddy, â€Å"Wouldn’t it be crazy if they came back in here and I still haven’t progressed? Looks like we are moving in! † He was happy that I was feeling better, but now he was getting more anxious and ready to meet you. When the doctor came back in to check my progress, we were all happy and relieved to hear that I had progressed to the point where delivery was imminent. The excitement intensified with everyone talking about who you might look like and whose personality you would take after. It was only about one last hour later when I grabbed your Daddy and said, â€Å"Get the doctor– the epidural isn’t working anymore. I feel a lot of pressure. † The doctor returned and checked my progress, and said that the epidural was still working, but that the time for your delivery had finally arrived! The doctor dressed in her gown and gloves and said, â€Å"Go ahead and push when you’re ready! † I grabbed your Daddy’s hand and pushed hard, took a deep breath, and pushed again. The doctor yelled, â€Å"She has black hair! One more push! † I closed my eyes, pushed so hard, and after a big exhale, I heard you scream. That moment the doctor laid you on my chest was indescribable. My heart was pounding and tears were pouring down my face. I couldn’t believe that after waiting forty-one weeks to meet you, you were finally here! Nurse Pam gently took you to bathe, weigh and measure you. Your Daddy and I looked at each other and just smiled. We were both so happy you were finally here with us. Pam called out, â€Å"She’s nine pounds one ounce, and nineteen and a half inches long. She’s a big girl. † She wrapped you up in a blanket and placed you in your Daddy’s arms. His eyes welled up with tears and he immediately fell in love with you. Everyone in the room was staring at your Daddy holding you and your Nana was lots of taking pictures. You had a full head of jet-black hair, dark eyes, ten precious figures and toes and flawless soft skin. You were the most perfect thing we had ever seen. How to cite The Day You Were Born, Essay examples

Six Unbeatable Research Tips

Six Unbeatable Research Tips Whether you’re starting in a library, a computer lab, or at home, there are certain how to make research guidelines you should follow. These guidelines are in place to make your life easier. As we said before, the more you participate in the research step, the more prepared you are to write a rough draft. 1. Use government and official websites This means â€Å".org† and â€Å".gov†. If you use a â€Å".com† website, you need to have proof that it holds valid information. Anyone can create a â€Å".com† address through WordPress, Weebly, or another platform for just twenty dollars a year. This hardly makes them reputable websites. While there are exceptions (you can always search for â€Å"authority† websites such as the New York Times or USA Today), â€Å".com† addresses are generally unacceptable for research papers and essay purposes. The same isn’t true for books. We don’t have a valid screening process for information found in printed media. One can argue that the cover of a book and the quality of its contents can probably speak to its accuracy, but it can’t be proven entirely. It also takes far less work to obtain a website address than it does to obtain a book. For this reason, professors are often harder on website URLs and their accuracy than the accuracy of published books. Also, never ever use Wikipedia for research projects or essays. Anyone can change the contents of a Wikipedia page, as long as they are familiar with the platform. Don’t fall into that trap. Your professor won’t accept it. 2. Record information and quotes as you find them Never write down a source without a specific quote that you want to use. If there’s more than one, make multiple references to that source. Organize this information on a separate document – or, more usefully, on index cards that can be easily rearranged. Number the index cards or mark them with a symbol. This symbol can mean that the index cards cover a certain subtopic (for example, a star might represent Barrack Obama during the 2008 election while a carrot might represent Hillary Clinton). It can also represent the paragraph of your essay in which the quote on the index card belongs. This system of reference will help you organize your paper before you begin the academic writing process. Also, keep in mind that you should write all of the information needed for a bibliography citation on the index card or document. This will avoid a second trip to the library. It will also ensure that you don’t have to drag any books or reference materials home. By the time you leave, you should have everything you need. 3. Visit the library You can probably do the majority of your paper at home, but your research should really be done in an academic setting. There are an endless number of resources and books that you can access data for free through your library database. The system really can’t be beat on this level. You won’t be able to find the same information on your laptop at home. It just isn’t feasible. Do your essay justice – start in a library. You’ll only need to spend two or three hours there. After that, you can go home and stay home (as long as you follow the index card process, of course). 4. Ask your professor for references If you’re struggling to find information for your topic, ask for ideas. Professors are chock full of helpful hints, and they are usually more than happy to help you with your paper. While they are hard on you come grading time, they don’t want to see you fail. Obviously, there are exceptions to that rule. Everyone has faced a miserable professor in their college career. But we’ve found, for the most part, that professors want to help their students succeed. You can visit during office hours, ask for an opinion after class, or send an email. It’s worth the hassle – especially since you’re showing the person grading your essay that you have the motivation to do well. Talk to your professor. It’s the smart thing to do. 5. Skim your resources – don’t read them in their entirety Yes, we’re telling you to do less work. Your professor wouldn’t expect you to dive into every piece of information that you acquire. Why? Because it isn’t necessary. And, quite honestly, a professor wouldn’t do it either. It just isn’t an efficient way to spend your time. Skim for the quotes that you need to write your essay, then be done with it. These are quotes that feed into your â€Å"angle†, which we’ll talk about in the next section. Once you have what you need and you’ve recorded the necessary information, close the book or exit the page. You can always come back to it later, if you realize you don’t have enough to reference already. 6. Establish a mental link between you and your subject You might not have any interest in the 2008 Presidential Election – but you need to find that common ground. Maybe, after a bit of research, you’ve found that Barrack Obama was an underdog during the beginning stages of his campaign. Maybe you can relate to that. Maybe you decide to angle your essay around that. That’s completely fine, but you need to establish this connection. In other words, find something about your essay topic that genuinely piques your interest.

The Wild History of Roller Skates

The Wild History of Roller Skates An overview of the evolution of dry land skating aka roller skates. Early 1700s - Skeelers In Holland, an unknown Dutchman decided to go ice skating in the summer, ice skating was the widespread method used in the Netherlands to travel the numerous frozen canals in winter. The unknown inventor accomplished dry land skating by nailing wooden spools to strips of wood and attaching them to his shoes. Skeelers was the nickname given to the new dry-land skaters. 1760 - Crashing the Masquerade Party A London instrument maker and inventor, Joseph Merlin, attended a masquerade party wearing one of his new inventions, metal-wheeled boots. Joseph desiring to make a grand entrance added the pizzazz of rolling in while playing the violin. Lining the huge ballroom was a very expensive wall-length mirror. The fiddling skater stood no chance and Merlin crashed solidly into the mirrored wall, as his roller skates crashed into society. 1818 - Roller Ballet In Berlin, roller skates made a more graceful entrance into society, with the premier of the German ballet Der Maler oder die Wintervergn Ugungen (The Artist or Winter Pleasures). The ballet called for ice-skating but because it was impossible at that time to produce ice on a stage, roller skates substituted. 1819 - First Patent In France, the first patent for a roller skate issued to a Monsieur Petibledin. The skate was made of a wood sole that attached to the bottom of a boot, fitted with two to four rollers made of copper, wood or ivory, and arranged in a straight single line. 1823 - The Rolito Robert John Tyers of London patented a skate called the Rolito with five wheels in a single row on the bottom of a shoe or boot. The Rolito was unable to follow a curved path, unlike the in-line skates of today. 1840 - Barmaids on Wheels In a beer tavern known as Corse Halle, near Berlin, barmaids on roller skates served thirsty patrons. This was a practical decision, given the size of beer halls in Germany, which gave dry land skating a publicity boost. 1857 - Public Rinks Huge public rinks opened in the Floral Hall and in the Strand of London. 1863 - Inventor James Plimpton American, James Plimpton found a way to make a very useable pair of skates. Plimptons skates had two parallel sets of wheels, one pair under the ball of the foot and the other pair under the heel. The four wheels were made of boxwood and worked on rubber springs. Plimptons design was the first dry-land skate that could maneuver in a smooth curve. This considered the birth of the modern four-wheeled roller skates, which allowed for turns and the ability to skate backwards. 1884 - Pin Ball-Bearing Wheels The invention of pin ball-bearing wheels made rolling easier and skates lighter. 1902 - The Coliseum The Coliseum in Chicago opened a public skating rink. Over 7,000 people attended the opening night. 1908 - Madison Square Gardens Madison Square Gardens in New York became a skating rink. Hundreds of rink openings in the United States and Europe followed. The sport was becoming very popular and various versions of the roller skating developed: recreational skating on indoor and outdoor rinks, polo skating, ballroom roller dancing and competitive speed skating. 1960s - Plastics Technology (with the advent of new plastics) helped the wheel truly come of age with new designs. 70s 80s - Disco A second big skating boom occurred with the marriage of disco and roller-skating. Over 4,000 roller-discos were in operation and Hollywood began making roller-movies. 1979 - Redesigning Roller Skates Scott Olson and Brennan Olson, brothers and  hockey  players who lived in Minneapolis, Minnesota, found an antique pair of roller skates. It was one of the early  skates  that used the in-line wheels rather than the four-wheeled parallel design of George Plimpton. Intrigued by the in-line design, the brothers began redesigning roller skates, taking design elements from the found skates and using modern materials. They used  polyurethane  wheels, attached the skates to ice hockey boots, and added a rubber toe-brake to their new design. 1983 - Rollerblade Inc Scott Olson founded Rollerblade Inc and  the term rollerblading  meant the sport of in-line skating because Rollerblade Inc was the only manufacturer of in-line skates for a long time. The first mass-produced rollerblades, while innovative had some design flaws: they were difficult to put on and adjust, prone to collecting dirt and moisture in the ball-bearings, the wheels were easily damaged and the brakes came from the old roller skate toe-brake and were not very effective. Rollerblade Inc Sold The Olson brothers sold Rollerblade Inc and the new owners had the money to really improve the design. The first massively successful Rollerblade skate was the Lightning TRS. In this pair of  skates  the flaws had vanished, fiberglass was used to produce the frames, the wheels were better protected, the skates were easier to put on and adjust and stronger brakes were placed at the rear. With the success of the Lightning TRS, other in-line skate companies appeared: Ultra Wheels, Oxygen,  K2  and others. 1989 - Macro and Aeroblades Models Rollerblade Inc produced the Macro and Aeroblades models, the first skates fastened with three buckles instead of long laces that needed threading. 1990 - Lighter Skates Rollerblade Inc switched to a glass-reinforced thermoplastic resin (durethan  polyamide) for their skates, replacing the  polyurethane  compounds previously used. This decreased the average weight of skates by nearly fifty percent. 1993 - Active Brake Technology Rollerblade, Inc. developed ABT or Active Brake Technology. A fiberglass post attached at one end to the top of the boot and at the other end to a  rubber-brake,  hinged the chassis at the back wheel. The skater had to straighten one leg to stop, driving the post into the brake, which then hit the ground. Skaters had been tilting their foot back to make contact with the ground, before ABT. The new brake design increased safety. Presently the best way for you to experience the latest inventions in the world of wheels is up-close and personal. Please do so, try in-line skating and keep rolling.

Harriet Quimby - First Woman Licensed Pilot in the US

Harriet Quimby - First Woman Licensed Pilot in the US Harriet Quimby Facts: Known for: the first woman licensed as a pilot in the United States; first woman to fly solo across the English Channel Occupation: pilot, journalist, actress, screenwriterDates: May 11, 1875 - July 1, 1912Also known as: Americas First Lady of the Air Harriet Quimby Biography: Harriet Quimby was born in Michigan in 1875 and was raised on a farm. She moved with her family to California in 1887. She claimed a birth date of May 1, 1884, a birthplace of Arroyo Grande, California, and wealthy parents. Harriet Quimby appears in the 1900 census in San Francisco, listing herself as an actress, but no record of any acting appearances has turned up. She did write for several San Francisco publications. New York Journalism Career In 1903, Harriet Quimby moved to New York to work for Leslies Illustrated Weekly, a popular womens journal. There, she was the drama critic, writing reviews of plays, the circus, comedians, and even that new novelty, moving pictures. She also served as a photojournalist, traveling to Europe, Mexico, Cuba, and Egypt for Leslies. She also wrote advice articles, including articles advising women on their careers, on auto repairs, and on household tips. Screenplay Writer / Independent Woman During these years, she also made the acquaintance of pioneer filmmaker D. W. Griffith and wrote seven screenplays for him. Harriet Quimby epitomized the independent woman of her day, living on her own, working at a career, driving her own car, and even smoking even before her fateful journalistic assignment in 1910. Harriet Quimby Discovers Flying In October 1910, Harriet Quimby went to the Belmont Park International Aviation Tournament, to write a story. She was bitten by the flying bug. She befriended Matilde Moisant and her brother, John Moisant. John and his brother Alfred ran a flying school, and Harriet Quimby and Matilde Moisant began taking flying lessons there though Matilde had already been flying by that time. They continued with their lessons even after John was killed in a flying accident. The press discovered Harriet Quimbys lessons she may have tipped them off and began covering her progress as a news story. Harriet herself began writing about flying for Leslies. First American Woman to Earn a Pilots License On August 1, 1911, Harriet Quimby passed her pilots test and was awarded license #37 from Aero Club of America, part of the International Aeronautic Federation, which granted international pilots licenses. Quimby was the second woman in the world to be licensed; the Baroness de la Roche had been awarded a license in France. Matilde Moisant became the second woman to be licensed as a pilot in the United States. Flying Career Immediately after winning her pilots license, Harriet Quimby began touring as an exhibition flyer in the United States and Mexico. Harriet Quimby designed her flying costume of plum-colored wool-backed satin, with a cowl hood made of the same fabric. At that time, most women pilots used adapted versions of mens clothing. Harriet Quimby and the English Channel In late 1911, Harriet Quimby decided to become the first woman to fly across the English Channel. Another woman beat her to it: Miss Trehawke-Davis flew across as a passenger. The record for the first woman pilot remained for Quimby to achieve, but she was afraid that someone would beat her to it. So she sailed secretly in March 1912 for England and borrowed a 50 HP monoplane from Louis Bleriot, who was the first person to fly across the Channel in 1909. On April 16, 1912, Harriet Quimby flew approximately the same route that Bleriot has flown but in reverse. She took off from Dover at dawn. The overcast skies forced her to rely solely on her compass for position. In about an hour, she landed in France near Calais, thirty miles from the planned landing spot, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the English Channel. Because the Titanic sank a few days before, the newspaper coverage of Harriet Quimbys record in the United States and Britain was sparse and buried deep within the papers. Harriet Quimby at Boston Harbor Harriet Quimby returned to exhibition flying. On July 1, 1912, she had agreed to fly at the Third Annual Boston Aviation Meet. She took off, with William Willard, organizer of the event, as a passenger, and circled the Boston Lighthouse. Suddenly, in view of hundreds of spectators, the two-seater plane, flying at 1500 feet, lurched. Willard fell out and plunged to his death in the mud flats below. Moments later, Harriet Quimby also fell from the plane and was killed. The plane glided to a landing in the mud, flipping over, and was damaged severely. Blanche Stuart Scott, another female pilot (but who never got a pilots license), saw the accident happen from her own plane in the air. Theories on the cause of the accident vary: cables became tangled in the plane, causing it to lurchWillard suddenly shifted his weight, unbalancing the planeWillard and Quimby failed to wear their seat belts Harriet Quimby was buried at Woodlawn Cemetery in New York, and then was moved to Kenisco Cemetery in Valhalla, New York. Legacy Though Harriet Quimbys career as a pilot lasted only 11 months, she was nevertheless a heroine and role model for generations to follow even inspiring Amelia Earhart. Harriet Quimby was featured on a 1991 50-cent airmail stamp.

Cultural Controversy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cultural Controversy - Essay Example The long and short-term effects it has on girls mental, physical and reproductive health renders the term circumcision inapplicable. Furthermore, the process is considered an abuse of human and more so children rights since it is often performed on young girls (World Health Organization). While the proponents insist, the term Female Genital is meant to dehumanize it, the truth is; the term describes it and any objective description of the torturers process is enough to dehumanize it. It is most prevalent in sub Saharan Africa especially among the Somali culture and several others, North, East and horn of Africa communities especially Somalia and Ethiopia (Reymond, et al n.d). In the United Kingdom, girls fall also victim to this senseless ritual, during the summer holiday, which is the longest for schoolchildren. Many girls of African descent, as young as five are sent off to Somalia and elsewhere they are put through this scaring process (Foreign and Commonwealth Office). The tools used are often not sterile, and the resulting wounds can result in fatalities especially when it is done in Africa by illiterate old women trying to uphold â€Å"culture.† It also poses a significant risk of complication during childbirth; this is evidenced by the fact that infant mortality rates are often notably higher in countries that are known to practice FGM. Besides, the removal of the clitoris ensures they can never hope to enjoy sex in posterity. Ultimately, FGM is an extremely painful and inhuman procedure that no girl should have ever to undergo and in most countries, even in Africa it has been outlawed and is only done in

Macroeconomic forecast paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Macroeconomic forecast paper - Essay Example The NCES distinguishes three possible scenarios and, moreover, provides different figures for men and women and different age groups. For 2005-2006 the NCES's forecast of unemployment rate for the middle alternative variant is as follows: for women 25 years or older - between 4,4% and 4,7%; for men from corresponding age group - between 4,4% and 5,2% (n.d., n.p.). The forecasts of the inflation rate calculated at national level vary even to a greater extent. The experts of the Economist Intelligence Unit estimate this indicator at 2,8% level in 2005 and at 2,7 % in 2006, predicting that it will "remain relatively contained" (2005, n.p.). At the same time their colleagues from the Federal Reserve also think that the inflation rate would go down in 2006 in comparison with 2005, but expect different figures - 2,6% and 2,5% correspondingly (2005, n.p.). Another figure provided by the Federal Reserve (n.d.,n.p.) is annual estimate of inflation rate for the next ten years, which equals to 2,5 %.

Effect of Electromagnetic Field of Mobile Phones

Effect of Electromagnetic Field of Mobile Phones Introduction Mobile phones have become indispensable as communication tools in the present world. From 1990 to 2013, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew from 12.4 million to over 6.8 billion, penetrating more than 95% of the global population and reaching the bottom of the economic pyramid to cater to the lower socioeconomic groups as well (International Telecomunication union, Geneva). The Indian telecom industry has undergone market liberalization at a very rapid pace and grown since 1990. Today, India has become one of the fastest growing telecom markets in the world. India is the world’s second largest mobile phone user base with over 929.37 million users in the year 2012 (Mittal Anuj 2013) (TRAI). Widespread mobile phone ownership and usage has aroused public concern over possible harmful biological effects of their use. Electromagnetic frequencies of mobile phones emit radiations between the 800 MHz and 2000 MHz, which causes excitation and rotation of water molecules and some other organic molecules, hence causing thermal and non-thermal effects on humans (Frey AH, 1998). Effects of electromagnetic fields (EMF) transmitted by mobile phones over human health, is a matter of public and scientific concern. Burning sensation and sensation of warmth around the ear (Oftedal G 2000), headache (Frey AH, 1998), sleep disturbance (Borbely AA, 1999), changes in the cognitive functions and neural activity (Preece AW,1999) (Hamblin DL, 2004), as well as changes such as decrease in the cerebral blood flow and alteration in functioning of blood brain barrier has been reported as the effects of mobile phones use. (Fritze K) (Haarala C, 2003). The potential carcinogenic effects of radiations emitted from mobile phones is controversial (Repacholi MH, 1997) (Moulder JE, 1999). Therefore, any biological effect related to mobile phone use, should be considered as a high-priority health issue. The hearing system is in the close proximity to the mobile phone so hearing system is potentially the most affected target for thermal and non-thermal effects. The external ear provides the route by which electro-magnetic frequencies from mobile phones reach the peripheral and central auditory system, which leads to relatively high energy deposition in the ear. The auditory system and particularly the cochlear outer hair cells (OHC) are known to be highly sensitive to a variety of exogenous and endogenous factors. Externally applied electrical and magnetic fields are known to produce some hearing sensation in the ear (Watanabe Y, 2000). Proximity of ear to electromagnetic source may lead to even larger damage and side effects such as hearing loss. One report, released from researchers at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research in Chandigarh, India, revealed that people who talk on a cell phone for more than an hour a day were found to have suffered losses of hig h-frequency hearing (Panda NK, 2010). However, little attention has been paid to the effects of electromagnetic field (EMF) of mobile phones on hearing. Till date, the interaction between electromagnetic fields (EMF) emitted by mobile phones and auditory function is not well established. Clear conclusions cannot be drawn from studies available, about the presence or absence of effects because of the limited sample sizes and short duration of studies. Despite of all these evidence, only recently, some studies have analyzed the effects of mobile phones on the human auditory system. However, the results are not consistent and are variable among different study designs. Only limited research data concerning interaction between EMF emitted by mobile phones and auditory function and possible impact on hearing, are available in the literature. The animal experiment, distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) did not show statistically significant changes on the outer hair cells functionality of adult as well as developing rats exposed to EMF at 900-1800 MHz frequencies for 1–2 h per day for 30 days(Parazzini M,2002) (Kizilay A, 2003). No appreciable change was seen in evoked otoacoustic emissions (OAEs) and none of the subjects reported a deterioration in hearing threshold level after 10 minutes exposure to the EMFs emitted by mobile phones in a recent human experiment to study the effects of the EMF of mobile phones on hearing status(Ozturan O, 2002). Other studies based on the brainstem evoked audiometry response (BERA) concluded that 30 minutes of mobile phone use has no adverse effect on the human auditory system(Arai N) (Gà ¡bor Stefanics, 2007). These small number of publications show that there is a big gap in the knowledge of potential biological effects of cellular phone use on hearing. Mobile phone is based on the two way radio communication between a portable handset and closest base station. Cellular system divides the city into small cells, which vary from hundreds of metre in densely populated areas, to kilometres in the sparsely populated areas. Each cell has abase stationthat consists of a tower and a small building containing the radio equipment. A cell phone is aduplexdevice, which means that there are two different frequencies, one for talking and another separate frequency for listening. Therefore, both persons can talk on the call at the same time. Mobile phones operate withincells, and they can switch cells as from one cell to another as we move around from one place to another. This gives cell phones this incredible range, because the call is transferred between the base stations (cell) without interruption. The radio communications utilizes electromagnetic waves at frequency around 900 MHz to carry information via small change in the wave’s frequency. A base station antenna typically radiates the radiations of about 60 Watts and a handset emits the radiations of 1-2 Watts. The antenna of a mobile phone emits radiations equally in all directions but a base station, unlike cell phone, produces a beam that is much more directional. There are two common technologies used by mobile-phone networks for transmitting information: TDMA [(Time Division Multiple Access) also known as GSM(Global System for Mobile communications)] does it by chopping the signals into sequential time frames. Each user of the channel takes turns to transmit and receive signals. In reality, only one person is using the channel at a given point of time. One of the important features of GSM system is theSubscriber Identity Module (SIM card). The SIM is a small, detachablesmart card, which contains the users subscription information (i.e. validity and talktime) and phone book. This allows the user to retain his or her information while switching mobile phone handsets. Alternatively, the user can also change service provider while retaining the handset, by changing the SIM card. GSM is currently the market leader in mobile phone industry (Michel Mouly, 1992). CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) The CDMA is based on spread spectrum technology which uses the whole bandwidth available. This allows each user to transmit frequency to the entire spectrum at all the time. CDMA uses a type of digital modulation called spread spectrum. CDMA spreads the voice data over the channel in a random fashion. The receiver undoes this randomization and collects the bits together to produce the sound. CDMA is an example ofmultiple accesses, in which several transmitters can send information over a single communication channel at the same time. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (Andrew J, 1995). GSM phones emit continuous wave pulses, so there is a great need to reduce the exposures to electromagnetic fields emitted from the cell phones with â€Å"continuous wave pulses†. On the other hand CDMA cell phones do not produce these pulses. GSM phones emit about 28 times more radiation when compared to the CDMA mobile phones. Therefore, GSM phones are more biologically harmful as compared to CDMA. Subtle deleterious effects to hearing can be assessed by modalities such as BERA, otoacoustic emission (OAE) and Pure tone audiometry, which measure the cochlear and retrocochlear , outer hair cochlear cell and middle ear functions respectively. In the evaluation of the functional status of auditory nerve and brainstem auditory sensory pathway Brainstem Auditory Evoked Response is a simple and effective method. It is a noninvasive and reproducible method that requires less cooperation of patient and measures the specific part of the auditory pathway. It is not significantly affected by state of consciousness, drugs and variety of environmental factors including other sensory inputs to cortex. BERA is an objective diagnostic tool widely used in modern neurophysiology. It represents the electrical events generated along the auditory pathway which is recorded from the scalp. These responses include several waves related to the specific areas of auditory pathway. Latencies of these waves reflect the neural conduction velocity at corresponding levels of auditory brainstem. Pure tone  audiometry  (PTA) is the keyhearing testused to identifyhearing threshold levels of an individual, enabling determination of the degree, type and configuration of ahearing loss. Thus, it provides the basis for diagnosis and management. PTA is a subjective, behavioral measurement of hearing threshold, as it relies on patient response topure tonestimuli. Therefore, PTA is used on adults and children old enough to cooperate with the test procedure. The initial laboratory exploration of OAEs coincided with, and contributed to, the rapid development of a new understanding of cochlear function. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that OAE are intimately associated with a key feature of the cochlear mechanism that has become known as the â€Å"cochlear amplifier†(Cooper NP, 1997). With OAEs it is possible to demonstrate cochlear mechanical frequency selectivity and nonlinearity and to observe the depression of cochlear activity caused by noise, drugs and medial olivocochlear stimulation. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This study is designed to evaluate the potential effects of electromagnetic field of mobile phones on human ear. Assessment of hearing threshold by pure tone audiometry and there comparison in users and non-users. Assessment of auditory pathway by Brainstem Evoked Response Auditory (BERA), and there comparison in mobile phone users and non-users. Assessment of cochlear function by recording the otoacoustic emissions produced from outer hair cells of inner ear, and there comparison in mobile phone users and non-users.

Democratic Origins and Revolutionary Writers, 1776-1820 Essay

James Fenimore Cooper (Photo courtesy Library of Congress) The hard-fought American Revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of liberation against a colonial power. The triumph of American independence seemed to many at the time a divine sign that America and her people were destined for greatness. Military victory fanned nationalistic hopes for a great new literature. Yet with the exception of outstanding political writing, few works of note appeared during or soon after the Revolution. American books were harshly reviewed in England. Americans were painfully aware of their excessive dependence on English literary models. The search for a native literature became a national obsession. As one American magazine editor wrote, around 1816, â€Å"Dependence is a state of degradation fraught with disgrace, and to be dependent on a foreign mind for what we can ourselves produce is to add to the crime of indolence the weakness of stupidity. † Cultural revolutions, unlike military revolutions, cannot be successfully imposed but must grow from the soil of shared experience. Revolutions are expressions of the heart of the people; they grow gradually out of new sensibilities and wealth of experience. It would take 50 years of accumulated history for America to earn its cultural independence and to produce the first great generation of American writers: Washington Irving, James Fenimore Cooper, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, and Emily Dickinson. America’s literary independence was slowed by a lingering identification with England, an excessive imitation of English or classical literary models, and difficult economic and political conditions that hampered publishing. Revolutionary writers, despite their genuine patriotism, were of necessity self-conscious, and they could never find roots in their American sensibilities. Colonial writers of the revolutionary generation had been born English, had grown to maturity as English citizens, and had cultivated English modes of thought and English fashions in dress and behavior. Their parents and grandparents were English (or European), as were all their friends. Added to this, American awareness of literary fashion still lagged behind the English, and this time lag intensified American imitation. Fifty years after their fame in England, English neoclassic writers such as Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, Alexander Pope, Oliver Goldsmith, and Samuel Johnson were still eagerly imitated in America. Moreover, the heady challenges of building a new nation attracted talented and educated people to politics, law, and diplomacy. These pursuits brought honor, glory, and financial security. Writing, on the other hand, did not pay. Early American writers, now separated from England, effectively had no modern publishers, no audience, and no adequate legal protection. Editorial assistance, distribution, and publicity were rudimentary. Until 1825, most American authors paid printers to publish their work. Obviously only the leisured and independently wealthy, like Washington Irving and the New York Knickerbocker group, or the group of Connecticut poets known as the Hartford Wits, could afford to indulge their interest in writing. The exception, Benjamin Franklin, though from a poor family, was a printer by trade and could publish his own work. Charles Brockden Brown was more typical. The author of several interesting Gothic romances, Brown was the first American author to attempt to live from his writing. But his short life ended in poverty. The lack of an audience was another problem. The small cultivated audience in America wanted well-known European authors, partly out of the exaggerated respect with which former colonies regarded their previous rulers. This preference for English works was not entirely unreasonable, considering the inferiority of American output, but it worsened the situation by depriving American authors of an audience. Only journalism offered financial remuneration, but the mass audience wanted light, undemanding verse and short topical essays — not long or experimental work. The absence of adequate copyright laws was perhaps the clearest cause of literary stagnation. American printers pirating English best-sellers understandably were unwilling to pay an American author for unknown material. The unauthorized reprinting of foreign books was originally seen as a service to the colonies as well as a source of profit for printers like Franklin, who reprinted works of the classics and great European books to educate the American public. Printers everywhere in America followed his lead. There are notorious examples of pirating. Matthew Carey, an important American publisher, paid a London agent — a sort of literary spy — to send copies of unbound pages, or even proofs, to him in fast ships that could sail to America in a month. Carey’s men would sail out to meet the incoming ships in the harbor and speed the pirated books  into print using typesetters who divided the book into sections and worked in shifts around the clock. Such a pirated English book could be reprinted in a day and placed on the shelves for sale in American bookstores almost as fast as in England. Because imported authorized editions were more expensive and could not compete with pirated ones, the copyright situation damaged foreign authors such as Sir Walter Scott and Charles Dickens, along with American authors. But at least the foreign authors had already been paid by their original publishers and were already well known. Americans such as James Fenimore Cooper not only failed to receive adequate payment, but they had to suffer seeing their works pirated under their noses. Cooper’s first successful book, The Spy (1821), was pirated by four different printers within a month of its appearance. Ironically, the copyright law of 1790, which allowed pirating, was nationalistic in intent. Drafted by Noah Webster, the great lexicographer who later compiled an American dictionary, the law protected only the work of American authors; it was felt that English writers should look out for themselves. Bad as the law was, none of the early publishers were willing to have it changed because it proved profitable for them. Piracy starved the first generation of revolutionary American writers; not surprisingly, the generation after them produced even less work of merit. The high point of piracy, in 1815, corresponds with the low point of American writing. Nevertheless, the cheap and plentiful supply of pirated foreign books and classics in the first 50 years of the new country did educate Americans, including the first great writers, who began to make their appearance around 1825. THE AMERICAN ENLIGHTENMENT The 18th-century American Enlightenment was a movement marked by an emphasis on rationality rather than tradition, scientific inquiry instead of unquestioning religious dogma, and representative government in place of monarchy. Enlightenment thinkers and writers were devoted to the ideals of justice, liberty, and equality as the natural rights of man. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Benjamin Franklin, whom the Scottish philosopher David Hume called America’s â€Å"first great man of letters,† embodied the Enlightenment ideal of humane rationality. Practical yet idealistic, hard-working and enormously successful, Franklin recorded his early life in his famous Autobiography. Writer, printer, publisher, scientist, philanthropist, and diplomat, he was the most famous and respected private figure of his time. He was the first great self-made man in America, a poor democrat born in an aristocratic age that his fine example helped to liberalize. Franklin was a second-generation immigrant. His Puritan father, a chandler (candle-maker), came to Boston, Massachusetts, from England in 1683. In many ways Franklin’s life illustrates the impact of the Enlightenment on a gifted individual. Self-educated but well-read in John Locke, Lord Shaftesbury, Joseph Addison, and other Enlightenment writers, Franklin learned from them to apply reason to his own life and to break with tradition — in particular the old-fashioned Puritan tradition — when it threatened to smother his ideals. While a youth, Franklin taught himself languages, read widely, and practiced writing for the public. When he moved from Boston to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin already had the kind of education associated with the upper classes. He also had the Puritan capacity for hard, careful work, constant self-scrutiny, and the desire to better himself. These qualities steadily propelled him to wealth, respectability, and honor. Never selfish, Franklin tried to help other ordinary people become successful by sharing his insights and initiating a characteristically American genre — the self-help book. Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack, begun in 1732 and published for many years, made Franklin prosperous and well-known throughout the colonies. In this annual book of useful encouragement, advice, and factual information, amusing characters such as old Father Abraham and Poor Richard exhort the reader in pithy, memorable sayings. In â€Å"The Way to Wealth,† which originally appeared in the Almanack, Father Abraham, â€Å"a plain clean old Man, with white Locks,† quotes Poor Richard at length. â€Å"A Word to the Wise is enough,† he says. â€Å"God helps them that help themselves. † â€Å"Early to Bed, and early to rise, makes a Man healthy, wealthy, and wise. † Poor Richard is a psychologist (â€Å"Industry pays Debts, while Despair encreaseth them†), and he always counsels hard work (â€Å"Diligence is the Mother of Good Luck†). Do not be lazy, he advises, for â€Å"One To-day is worth two tomorrow. â€Å"Sometimes he creates anecdotes to illustrate his points: â€Å"A little Neglect may breed great Mischief†¦. For want of a Nail the Shoe was lost; for want of a Shoe the Horse was lost; and for want of a Horse the Rider was lost, being overtaken and slain by the Enemy, all for want of Care about a Horse-shoe Nail. † Franklin was a genius at compressing a moral point: â€Å"What maintains one Vice, would bring up two Children. † â€Å"A small leak will sink a great Ship. † â€Å"Fools make Feasts, and wise Men eat them. † Franklin’s Autobiography is, in part, another self-help book. Written to advise his son, it covers only the early years. The most famous section describes his scientific scheme of self- improvement. Franklin lists 13 virtues: temperance, silence, order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness, tranquility, chastity, and humility. He elaborates on each with a maxim; for example, the temperance maxim is â€Å"Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. † A pragmatic scientist, Franklin put the idea of perfectibility to the test, using himself as the experimental subject. To establish good habits, Franklin invented a reusable calendrical record book in which he worked on one virtue each week, recording each lapse with a black spot. His theory prefigures psychological behaviorism, while his systematic method of notation anticipates modern behavior modification. The project of self-improvement blends the Enlightenment belief in perfectibility with the Puritan habit of moral self-scrutiny. Franklin saw early that writing could best advance his ideas, and he therefore deliberately perfected his supple prose style, not as an end in itself but as a tool. â€Å"Write with the learned. Pronounce with the vulgar,† he advised. A scientist, he followed the Royal (scientific) Society’s 1667 advice to use â€Å"a close, naked, natural way of speaking; positive expressions, clear senses, a native easiness, bringing all things as near the mathematical plainness as they can. † Despite his prosperity and fame, Franklin never lost his democratic sensibility, and he was an important figure at the 1787 convention at which the U. S. Constitution was drafted. In his later years, he was president of an antislavery association. One of his last efforts was to promote universal public education. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur (1735-1813) Another Enlightenment figure is Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, whose Letters from an American Farmer (1782) gave Europeans a glowing idea of opportunities for peace, wealth, and pride in America. Neither an American nor a farmer, but a French aristocrat who owned a plantation outside New York City before the Revolution, Crevecoeur enthusiastically praised the colonies for their industry, tolerance, and growing prosperity in 12 letters that depict America as an agrarian paradise — a vision that would inspire Thomas Jefferson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and many other writers up to the present. Crevecoeur was the earliest European to develop a considered view of America and the new American character. The first to exploit the â€Å"melting pot† image of America, in a famous passage he asks: What then is the American, this new man? He is either a European, or the descendant of a European, hence that strange mixture of blood, which you will find in no other country. I could point out to you a family whose grandfather was an Englishman, whose wife was Dutch, whose son married a French woman, and whose present four sons have now four wives of different nations†¦. Here individuals of all nations are melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day cause changes in the world. THE POLITICAL PAMPHLET: Thomas Paine (1737-1809) The passion of Revolutionary literature is found in pamphlets, the most popular form of political literature of the day. Over 2,000 pamphlets were published during the Revolution. The pamphlets thrilled patriots and threatened loyalists; they filled the role of drama, as they were often read aloud in public to excite audiences. American soldiers read them aloud in their camps; British Loyalists threw them into public bonfires. Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense sold over 100,000 copies in the first three months of its publication. It is still rousing today. â€Å"The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind,† Paine wrote, voicing the idea of American exceptionalism still strong in the United States — that in some fundamental sense, since America is a democratic experiment and a country theoretically open to all immigrants, the fate of America foreshadows the fate of humanity at large. Political writings in a democracy had to be clear to appeal to the voters. And to have informed voters, universal education was promoted by many of the founding fathers. One indication of the vigorous, if simple, literary life was the proliferation of newspapers. More newspapers were read in America during the Revolution than anywhere else in the world. Immigration also mandated a simple style. Clarity was vital to a newcomer, for whom English might be a second language. Thomas Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence is clear and logical, but his committee’s modifications made it even simpler. The Federalist Papers, written in support of the Constitution, are also lucid, logical arguments, suitable for debate in a democratic nation. NEOCLASSISM: EPIC, MOCK EPIC, AND SATIRE Unfortunately, â€Å"literary† writing was not as simple and direct as political writing. When trying to write poetry, most educated authors stumbled into the pitfall of elegant neoclassicism. The epic, in particular, exercised a fatal attraction. American literary patriots felt sure that the great American Revolution naturally would find expression in the epic — a long, dramatic narrative poem in elevated language, celebrating the feats of a legendary hero. Many writers tried but none succeeded. Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), one of the group of writers known as the Hartford Wits, is an example. Dwight, who eventually became the president of Yale University, based his epic, The Conquest of Canaan (1785), on the Biblical story of Joshua’s struggle to enter the Promised Land. Dwight cast General Washington, commander of the American army and later the first president of the United States, as Joshua in his allegory and borrowed the couplet form that Alexander Pope used to translate Homer. Dwight’s epic was as boring as it was ambitious. English critics demolished it; even Dwight’s friends, such as John Trumbull (1750-1831), remained unenthusiastic. So much thunder and lightning raged in the melodramatic battle scenes that Trumbull proposed that the epic be provided with lightning rods. Not surprisingly, satirical poetry fared much better than serious verse. The mock epic genre encouraged American poets to use their natural voices and did not lure them into a bog of pretentious and predictable patriotic sentiments and faceless conventional poetic epithets out of the Greek poet Homer and the Roman poet Virgil by way of the English poets. In mock epics like John Trumbull’s good-humored M’Fingal (1776-82), stylized emotions and conventional turns of phrase are ammunition for good satire, and the bombastic oratory of the revolution is itself ridiculed. Modeled on the British poet Samuel Butler’s Hudibras, the mock epic derides a Tory, M’Fingal. It is often pithy, as when noting of condemned criminals facing hanging: No man e’er felt the halter draw With good opinion of the law. M’Fingal went into over 30 editions, was reprinted for a half-century, and was appreciated in England as well as America. Satire appealed to Revolutionary audiences partly because it contained social comment and criticism, and political topics and social problems were the main subjects of the day. The first American comedy to be performed, The Contrast (produced 1787) by Royall Tyler (1757-1826), humorously contrasts Colonel Manly, an American officer, with Dimple, who imitates English fashions. Naturally, Dimple is made to look ridiculous. The play introduces the first Yankee character, Jonathan. Another satirical work, the novel Modern Chivalry, published by Hugh Henry Brackenridge in installments from 1792 to 1815, memorably lampoons the excesses of the age. Brackenridge (1748- 1816), a Scottish immigrant raised on the American frontier, based his huge, picaresque novel on Don Quixote; it describes the misadventures of Captain Farrago and his stupid, brutal, yet appealingly human, servant Teague O’Regan. POET OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: Philip Freneau (1752-1832). One poet, Philip Freneau, incorporated the new stirrings of European Romanticism and escaped the imitativeness and vague universality of the Hartford Wits. The key to both his success and his failure was his passionately democratic spirit combined with an inflexible temper. The Hartford Wits, all of them undoubted patriots, reflected the general cultural conservatism of the educated classes. Freneau set himself against this holdover of old Tory attitudes, complaining of â€Å"the writings of an aristocratic, speculating faction at Hartford, in favor of monarchy and titular distinctions. â€Å"Although Freneau received a fine education and was as well acquainted with the classics as any Hartford Wit, he embraced liberal and democratic causes. From a Huguenot (radical French Protestant) background, Freneau fought as a militiaman during the Revolutionary War. In 1780, he was captured and imprisoned in two British ships, where he almost died before his family managed to get him released. His poem â€Å"The British Prison Ship† is a bitter condemnation of the cruelties of the British, who wished â€Å"to stain the world with gore. † This piece and other revolutionary works, including â€Å"Eutaw Springs,† â€Å"American Liberty,† â€Å"A Political Litany,† â€Å"A Midnight Consultation,† and â€Å"George the Third’s Soliloquy,† brought him fame as the â€Å"Poet of the American Revolution. † Freneau edited a number of journals during his life, always mindful of the great cause of democracy. When Thomas Jefferson helped him establish the militant, anti-Federalist National Gazette in 1791, Freneau became the first powerful, crusading newspaper editor in America, and the literary predecessor of William Cullen Bryant, William Lloyd Garrison, and H.L. Mencken. As a poet and editor, Freneau adhered to his democratic ideals. His popular poems, published in newspapers for the average reader, regularly celebrated American subjects. â€Å"The Virtue of Tobacco† concerns the indigenous plant, a mainstay of the southern economy, while â€Å"The Jug of Rum† celebrates the alcoholic drink of the West Indies, a crucial commodity of early American trade and a major New World export. Common American characters lived in â€Å"The Pilot of Hatteras,† as well as in poems about quack doctors and bombastic evangelists. Freneau commanded a natural and colloquial style appropriate to a genuine democracy, but he could also rise to refined neoclassic lyricism in often-anthologized works such as â€Å"The Wild Honeysuckle† (1786), which evokes a sweet-smelling native shrub. Not until the â€Å"American Renaissance† that began in the 1820s would American poetry surpass the heights that Freneau had scaled 40 years earlier. Additional groundwork for later literary achievement was laid during the early years. Nationalism inspired publications in many fields, leading to a new appreciation of things American. Noah Webster (1758-1843) devised an American Dictionary, as well as an important reader and speller for the schools. His Spelling Book sold more than 100 million copies over the years. Updated Webster’s dictionaries are still standard today. The American Geography, by Jedidiah Morse, another landmark reference work, promoted knowledge of the vast and expanding American land itself. Some of the most interesting if nonliterary writings of the period are the journals of frontiersmen and explorers such as Meriwether Lewis (1774-1809) and  Zebulon Pike (1779-1813), who wrote accounts of expeditions across the Louisiana Territory, the vast portion of the North American continent that Thomas Jefferson purchased from Napoleon in 1803. WRITERS OF FICTION. The first important fiction writers widely recognized today, Charles Brockden Brown, Washington Irving, and James Fenimore Cooper, used American subjects, historical perspectives, themes of change, and nostalgic tones. They wrote in many prose genres, initiated new forms, and found new ways to make a living through literature. With them, American literature began to be read and appreciated in the United States and abroad. Charles Brockden Brown (1771-1810) Already mentioned as the first professional American writer, Charles Brockden Brown was inspired by the English writers Mrs. Radcliffe and English William Godwin. (Radcliffe was known for her terrifying Gothic novels; a novelist and social reformer, Godwin was the father of Mary Shelley, who wrote Frankenstein and married English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley. ) Driven by poverty, Brown hastily penned four haunting novels in two years: Wieland (1798), Arthur Mervyn (1799), Ormond (1799), and Edgar Huntley (1799). In them, he developed the genre of American Gothic. The Gothic novel was a popular genre of the day featuring exotic and wild settings, disturbing psychological depth, and much suspense. Trappings included ruined castles or abbeys, ghosts, mysterious secrets, threatening figures, and solitary maidens who survive by their wits and spiritual strength. At their best, such novels offer tremendous suspense and hints of magic, along with profound explorations of the human soul in extremity. Critics suggest that Brown’s Gothic sensibility expresses deep anxieties about the inadequate social institutions of the new nation. Brown used distinctively American settings. A man of ideas, he dramatized scientific theories, developed a personal theory of fiction, and championed high literary standards despite personal poverty. Though flawed, his works are darkly powerful. Increasingly, he is seen as the precursor of romantic writers like Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Melville, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. He expresses subconscious fears that the outwardly optimistic Enlightenment period drove underground. Washington Irving (1789-1859). The youngest of 11 children born to a well-to-do New York merchant family, Washington Irving became a cultural and diplomatic ambassador to Europe, like Benjamin Franklin and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Despite his talent, he probably would not have become a full-time professional writer, given the lack of financial rewards, if a series of fortuitous incidents had not thrust writing as a profession upon him. Through friends, he was able to publish his Sketch Book (1819-1820) simultaneously in England and America, obtaining copyrights and payment in both countries. The Sketch Book of Geoffrye Crayon (Irving’s pseudonym) contains his two best remembered stories, â€Å"Rip Van Winkle† and â€Å"The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. † â€Å"Sketch† aptly describes Irving’s delicate, elegant, yet seemingly casual style, and â€Å"crayon† suggests his ability as a colorist or creator of rich, nuanced tones and emotional effects. In the Sketch Book, Irving transforms the Catskill Mountains along the Hudson River north of New York City into a fabulous, magical region. American readers gratefully accepted Irving’s imagined â€Å"history† of the Catskills, despite the fact (unknown to them) that he had adapted his stories from a German source. Irving gave America something it badly needed in the brash, materialistic early years: an imaginative way of relating to the new land. No writer was as successful as Irving at humanizing the land, endowing it with a name and a face and a set of legends. The story of â€Å"Rip Van Winkle,† who slept for 20 years, waking to find the colonies had become independent, eventually became folklore. It was adapted for the stage, went into the oral tradition, and was gradually accepted as authentic American legend by generations of Americans. Irving discovered and helped satisfy the raw new nation’s sense of history. His numerous works may be seen as his devoted attempts to build the new nation’s soul by recreating history and giving it living, breathing, imaginative life. For subjects, he chose the most dramatic aspects of American history: the discovery of the New World, the first president and national hero, and the westward exploration. His earliest work was a sparkling, satirical History of New York (1809) under the Dutch, ostensibly written by Diedrich Knickerbocker (hence the name of Irving’s friends and New York writers of the day, the â€Å"Knickerbocker School†). James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) James Fenimore Cooper, like Irving, evoked a sense of the past and gave it a local habitation and a name. In Cooper, though, one finds the powerful myth of a golden age and the poignance of its loss. While Irving and other American writers before and after him scoured Europe in search of its legends, castles, and great themes, Cooper grasped the essential myth of America: that it was timeless, like the wilderness. American history was a trespass on the eternal; European history in America was a reenactment of the fall in the Garden of Eden. The cyclical realm of nature was glimpsed only in the act of destroying it: The wilderness disappeared in front of American eyes, vanishing before the oncoming pioneers like a mirage. This is Cooper’s basic tragic vision of the ironic destruction of the wilderness, the new Eden that had attracted the colonists in the first place. Personal experience enabled Cooper to write vividly of the transformation of the wilderness and of other subjects such as the sea and the clash of peoples from different cultures. The son of a Quaker family, he grew up on his father’s remote estate at Otsego Lake (now Cooperstown) in central New York State. Although this area was relatively peaceful during Cooper’s boyhood, it had once been the scene of an Indian massacre. Young Fenimore Cooper grew up in an almost feudal environment. His father, Judge Cooper, was a landowner and leader. Cooper saw frontiersmen and Indians at Otsego Lake as a boy; in later life, bold white settlers intruded on his land. Natty Bumppo, Cooper’s renowned literary character, embodies his vision of the frontiersman as a gentleman, a Jeffersonian â€Å"natural aristocrat. † Early in 1823, in The Pioneers, Cooper had begun to discover Bumppo. Natty is the first famous frontiersman in American literature and the literary forerunner of countless cowboy and backwoods heroes. He is the idealized, upright individualist who is better than the society he protects. Poor and isolated, yet pure, he is a touchstone for ethical values and prefigures Herman Melville’s Billy Budd and Mark Twain’s Huck Finn. Based in part on the real life of American pioneer Daniel Boone — who was a Quaker like Cooper — Natty Bumppo, an outstanding woodsman like Boone, was a peaceful man adopted by an Indian tribe. Both Boone and the fictional Bumppo loved nature and freedom. They constantly kept moving west to escape the oncoming settlers they had guided into the wilderness, and they became legends in their own lifetimes. Natty is also chaste, high-minded, and deeply spiritual: He is the Christian knight of medieval romances transposed to the virgin forest and rocky soil of America. The unifying thread of the five novels collectively known as the Leather-Stocking Tales is the life of Natty Bumppo. Cooper’s finest achievement, they constitute a vast prose epic with the North American continent as setting, Indian tribes as characters, and great wars and westward migration as social background. The novels bring to life frontier America from 1740 to 1804. Cooper’s novels portray the successive waves of the frontier settlement: the original wilderness inhabited by Indians; the arrival of the first whites as scouts, soldiers, traders, and frontiersmen; the coming of the poor, rough settler families; and the final arrival of the middle class, bringing the first professionals — the judge, the physician, and the banker. Each incoming wave displaced the earlier: Whites displaced the Indians, who retreated westward; the â€Å"civilized† middle classes who erected schools, churches, and jails displaced the lower-class individualistic frontier folk, who moved further west, in turn displacing the Indians who had preceded them. Cooper evokes the endless, inevitable wave of settlers, seeing not only the gains but the losses. Cooper’s novels reveal a deep tension between the lone individual and society, nature and culture, spirituality and organized religion. In Cooper, the natural world and the Indian are fundamentally good — as is the highly civilized realm associated with his most cultured characters. Intermediate characters are often suspect, especially greedy, poor white settlers who are too uneducated or unrefined to appreciate nature or culture. Like Rudyard Kipling, E. M. Forster, Herman Melville, and other sensitive observers of widely varied cultures interacting with each other, Cooper was a cultural relativist. He understood that no culture had a monopoly on virtue or refinement. Cooper accepted the American condition while Irving did not. Irving addressed the American setting as a European might have — by importing and adapting European legends, culture, and history. Cooper took the process a step farther. He created American settings and new, distinctively American characters and themes. He was the first to sound the recurring tragic note in American fiction. WOMEN AND MINORITIES Although the colonial period produced several women writers of note, the revolutionary era did not further the work of women and minorities, despite the many schools, magazines, newspapers, and literary clubs that were springing up. Colonial women such as Anne Bradstreet, Anne Hutchinson, Ann Cotton, and Sarah Kemble Knight exerted considerable social and literary influence in spite of primitive conditions and dangers; of the 18 women who came to America on the ship Mayflower in 1620, only four survived the first year. When every able-bodied person counted and conditions were fluid, innate talent could find expression. But as cultural institutions became formalized in the new republic, women and minorities gradually were excluded from them. Phillis Wheatley (c. 1753-1784) Given the hardships of life in early America, it is ironic that some of the best poetry of the period was written by an exceptional slave woman. The first African-American author of importance in the United States, Phillis Wheatley was born in Africa and brought to Boston, Massachusetts, when she was about seven, where she was purchased by the pious and wealthy tailor John Wheatley to be a companion for his wife. The Wheatleys recognized Phillis’s remarkable inte.